BEE BREEDS
BEE BREEDS
BEE ENEMIES
In the United States, beekeepers work primarily with the Western Honey bee, otherwise known as Apis mellifera (there are four species of honeybees in the world) . There are many BREEDS (or subspecies if you prefer) within the A. mellifera family to choose from and work with. Each better known type is listed below with some brief notes about their characteristics. We recommend you research each to find the type you are interested in BEFORE you purchase. The breeds below are presented with the most commonly used first. (The following information was compiled from many sources but primarily from Wikipedia.com)
Golden Italian - Apis Mellifera Ligustica
The Italian honeybee is the default bee that beekeepers use. The Italian is generally considered the best general-purpose bee, and thereby is what is most often recommended to the beginner. Italian bees are also the most common stock bee, and likely are the race to be found in packages.
Pros and Cons of the Italian Honey Bee
MEDICATION
PROS
- Good beginner bee
- Readily builds comb
- Light color worker, with dark queen
makes queen locating easier
- Wonderful foragers
- Only moderate tendency to swarm
- Relatively easy and calm to work with
- Resistant to European Foul Brood
- Strong cleaning behavior
- Lower range propolis producer
CONS
- Brood rearing continues after honey
flow ceases
- Builds a great deal of brace and burr
comb
- Highly prone to drifting
- Head buts beekeeper as defensive
action
- Short distance foragers, causing
tendency to rob
- Slow spring buildup
- Susceptible to Disease
Carnolian - Apis Mellifera Carnica
The Carniolan honeybee (Apis mellifera carnica) is a subspecies of Western honeybee. It originates from Slovenia, but can now be found also in Austria, part of Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia.
Pros and Cons of the Carniolan honey bee
PROS
- Earlier morning forager
- Forages on colder and wetter days than
most other bees
- Overwinters well on small stores, as
queen stops laying in the fall
- Rapid build up in early spring
- Exceptionally gentle and easy to work
- Brood production is dependent on
availability of supplies, hence more food
more forages, less food smaller
population
- Less susceptible to brood disease
- Creates less brace and burr comb
CONS
- Swarms easily when no expansion
room is available
- If pollen is scarce brood rearing greatly
diminishes
Caucasian - Apis Mellifera Caucasica
The Caucasian honeybee originates from the high valleys of the Central Caucasus.
Pros and Cons of the Caucasian honey bee
PROS
- Large and Strong population
- Calm when on comb
- Overwinters well by stopping brood
production in the fall
- Forages earlier and on cooler days
- Has a longer tongue than most races
and can thereby take advantage of
more nectar sources than most.
CONS
- Slow spring startup
- Produces an abundance of propolis,
which may be beneficial to propolis
collectors, but makes the overall hive
more difficult to work.
- Makes wet capped comb, which is poor
for honey comb sale
- Once brought to a level of alarm they
are difficult to calm and easily stings.
- Susceptible to nosema
- Prone to rob
Russian - Apis Mellifera
The Russian honeybee have evolved traits of natural mite resistance due to heavy selection pressures. They have lived for more than 150 years in a region that is home to the varroa mite and the tracheal mites (Acarapis woodi).
Pros and Cons of the Russian honey bee
PROS
- Thought to be naturally resistant to
Varroa Mites
- Resistant Tracheal Mite
- Quick Spring buildup
- Winter tolerant
CONS
- Expensive
- More prone to swarming (likely every
year)
Buckfast - Apis Mellifera: hybrid
The Buckfast hybrid was produced by Brother Adam of the Buckfast Abbey. Brother Adam crossed many races of bees (mainly Anatolians with Italians and Carniolans) in hopes of creating a superior breed. The results are what is now know as the Buckfast Bee. While the European variety of Buckfast are considered very gentle, the American variety is far more defensive. There is a debate among beekeepers if this defensiveness is due to breeding for varroa resistance or partial hybridization with the AHB (Africanized Honey Bee) of the Buckfast line in America. The issues are further clouded in that the two leading American queen breeders are breeding for varroa resistance and are also located in AHB territory. AHB are usually considered by most experts to be more resistant to varroa than the European Honey Bee.
Pros and Cons of the Buckfast honey bee
PROS
- Highly Tracheal Mite Tolerant
- Extremely gentle, with low sting instinct
- Resistant to Chalkbrood
- Low swarm instinct
- Overwinters well
CONS
- Builds up slowly in spring
- Poor early spring pollinators
Starline - Apis Mellifera: hybrid
The Starline is an Italian hybrid known for its vigor and strong honey production.
Pros and Cons of the Starline honey bee
PROS
- Good brood producers
- Creates large honey crop under correct
conditions
- Minimal propolis buildup
- Fast spring build up
CONS
- Poor at overwintering due to large
population
- Offspring queen often do not have
same traits as mother, may require
common requeening
Yugo Honey Bee - Apis mellifera ?
Pros and Cons of the Yugo honey bee
PROS
- Low swarm instinct
- Overwinters well
CONS
- Not highly tested as it is a newer breed
- Long term keeping effects unknown
Feral Honey Bees - Apis Mellifera
While not technically a race in its own, feral honey bees are more likely to be acclimated to the area in which they are found.
Pros and Cons of Feral honey bee
PROS
- Likely acclimated to the area they are
present in
- Often free to acquire
CONS
- Must be captured (or allow for known
species to breed with feral drones)
- Unknown background, may be
Africanized
- Not bred to be disease or mite resistant,
but may hold some resistance to local
conditions
Cordovan Honey Bee - Apis Mellifera ?
Closely related to the Italian race, cordovans are used mainly for tracking the genetic makeup due to the wide variance in color.
Pros and Cons of Cordovan honey bee
PROS
- Overwinter Well
CONS
- Aggressive
- Slow Spring build up
- Difficult if not impossible to buy in the US
German Black Honey Bee - Apis Mellifera Mellifera
The German Black bee, also known as the European dark bee, was the first honeybee imported to the Americas. This distinctly marked bee is brown and black in color and over winter well.
Midnight Honey Bee - Apis Mellifera: Hybrid
The Midnight hybrid is a combination of both the Caucasian and Carniolan races.
ENEMIES OF BEES
BROOD DISEASE
American foulbrood
American foulbrood or AFB is by far the most virulent brood disease known in honey bees. The reason for this is the causative organism forms heat- and drought-resistant spores, capable of germinating in a favorable environment at any time. High incidences of this disease in the past have led to the bee inspection programs now present in most of the United States.
The disease is caused by the spore-forming bacterium, Bacillus larvae. It attacks older larvae and young pupae, which are literally digested by enzymes secreted by the bacterium. Infected individuals turn brown, then black, the resultant mass becoming a hard "scale" of material deposited on the side of the cell.
The symptoms of American foulbrood include:
- A characteristic odor, sometimes described as sour or "of a glue pot."
- Perforated or sunken cappings, darker in color than healthy brood cappings.
- Resultant black scales, difficult to remove from the cell because of their stickiness. The scales may exhibit adult characteristics like legs,
heads or tongues, which are clearly diagnostical for this particular disease.
Diagnosis of American foulbrood requires experience, often only available from a trained bee inspector. The "ropy" test can be used to make a preliminary diagnosis. A stick or twig is inserted into the cell and then withdrawn; the affected larvae "sticks" tenaciously and the contents can be drawn out into a long string or "rope." The Holst Milk Test another possible test. An affected individual or scale is swirled in a weak solution (1%) of skim milk. If the milk clears, American foulbrood is suspected. Finally, a brood sample may be sent for microscopic diagnosis to:
Beneficial Insects Laboratory
USDA/ARS
Beltsville, Maryland 20105
Transmission of American foulbrood is possible in a number of ways, including feeding infected honey and pollen, using contaminated equipment, and installing infected package bees or queens. Because honey from unknown sources is always suspect, use of sugar syrup to feed bees is preferable in almost all circumstances. It is recommended that hands and hive tools be kept as clean as possible at all times to avoid possible contamination among colonies.
Because the spores can remain viable (capable of germination) for so long, most states require bee colonies with American foulbrood to be burned upon discovery. Some, like Florida and Georgia, pay a small indemnity, others do not.
Prevention of American foulbrood is accomplished by good management procedures (this may include eliminating colonies that are suspected of having the disease and/or feeding an antibiotic). The only antibiotic legal to use at present is oxytetracycline. Terramycin, a registered trademark of Pfizer, Inc., is generally available at bee supply houses.
A great deal of controversy exists concerning feeding antibiotics to honey bee colonies for prevention of American foulbrood. Most large-scale beekeepers find it more efficient to routinely treat their bees. On the other hand, many small-scale operators do not follow such a feeding program, preferring instead to let symptoms appear and then have the bee inspector diagnose and then burn the colonies and collect the small indemnity fee (not available in all states). This removes disease reservoirs and eliminates susceptible stock, not possible where preventative feeding with antibiotics effectively may mask all symptoms. Generally speaking, once a decision has been made to feed antibiotics, such a prevention program must become a permanent part of the operation's activities. Finally, if antibiotics are not fed, this eliminates any risk that they will contaminate a honey crop.
There is a general lack of agreement among researchers, regulators and others concerning effectiveness of preventative feeding as a desirable disease control policy. Consequently recommendations may vary widely. For a more detailed discussion on the matter, consult appropriate sections in:
- Honey Bee Pests, Predators, and Diseases, edited by Dr. R.A. Morse, Comstock Publishers, Cornell University Press, 1978
- Honey Bee Pathology, by Leslie Bailey, Academic Press, 1981, and/or
- The Hive and Honey Bee, Dadant and Sons, Inc., Hamilton, IL 1975 (see references).
Most authorities agree that the approved dosage of oxytetracycline hydrochloride is 200 milligrams per one ounce feeding. Several formulations are presently available and are named based on the amount of active ingredient (i.e. TM-10 = 10 grams active ingredient per pound). TM-25, simply called Terramycin Soluble Powder (TSP), can be fed in syrup. The other formulation (TM-10) is not soluble in water and must be fed as a dust. At least one formulation of oxytetracycline already mixed with a carrier can be purchased from bee supply outlets.
The general rule to follow is feed according to the instructions on the label. The label is the law and must be followed to the letter. Unfortunately, the label is often missing from small portions of the product and confusion may result. According to the latest information on the Pfizer label for (OXYTETRACYCLINE HCL) Terramycin Soluble Powder #60-7000-00-1: Use 1 level teaspoonful Terramycin Soluble Powder (TSP) per ounce of powdered sugar per colony as a dust or 1 level teaspoonful per 5 lb jar containing 1:1 sugar syrup per colony. In addition, when making syrup it is advisable to first dissolve the TSP in a small amount of water to facilitate mixing. Because TSP is soluble, some have experienced trouble using it as a dust formulation in humid environments.
With reference to dusting, the label says to mix 1 lb TM-10 (a different product from TSP) with two pounds of powdered sugar, then apply one ounce of this mixture per feeding. Applying the dust on the outer parts or ends of the frames and feeding the syrup in pails is suggested. Usually three feedings or applications (either syrup or dust) at 4-5 day intervals are required in the spring and/or fall at least 4 weeks before the main honey flow to prevent contamination of marketable honey.
Remember: Laws governing agricultural chemicals are continually in flux and new products are periodically available which can make previous labels and/or recommendations obsolete. It cannot be overemphasized that only instructions as they appear on the label should be followed when using any chemical product either in disease and/or pest and predator control.
European Foulbrood
European foulbrood or EFB is closely related to American foulbrood in symptomology. However, the caustive organism, the bacterium, Streptococcus pluton, does not form spores, and so the disease is considered less problematic than American foulbrood. The bacterium generally only attacks younger larvae. As a consequence, perforated cappings may be absent and the affected individual may still be in a coiled state, resulting in a "twisted" scale. As with American foulbrood, the EFB-infected individual is reduced over time to a dark scale.
The symptoms of European foulbrood include:
- A characteristic odor.
- Perforated or sunken cappings, rarely present.
- A resultant black scale, often twisted or contorted in its cell and easier to remove than American foulbrood scales.
Diagnosis of European foulbrood is almost the same as that for American foulbrood. The ropy test shows less stringyness or ropyness (subjective at best and not considered definitive diagnosis), and the Holst Milk Test does not result in a clearing of the solution. Again, the bee inspector's on-site diagnosis is recommended, and samples may be sent to the Beneficial Insects Laboratory.
Transmission of European foulbrood is the same as for American foulbrood. Again, it is recommended hands and hive tools be kept clean of debris (wax, propolis) when working a number of colonies.
Treatment of European foulbrood is generally less drastic than for American foulbrood. Only in very severe cases is burning resorted to. Generally, requeening with more resistant stock will clear up the disease. This provides a break in the brood cycle and introduces new genetic (possibly more resistant) material into the colony. In addition, routine prophylactic with the antibiotic oxytetracycline (Terramycin) is effective for prevention of European as American foulbrood (see section above on feeding antibiotics).
The amount of stress a colony is under can often be correlated with development of European foulbrood. Symptoms may appear when a large amount of brood is being reared or during nectar dearth. The role played by good management technique, therefore, which reduces stress on a colony cannot be overemphasized in controlling European foulbrood, as well as most other diseases in bees.
Chalkbrood
Chalkbrood is a fungal disease. Although considered by many to be a relatively minor disease of honey bees, it appears to be on the rise in much of the United States, and some geographic areas in Florida have reported large infestations. The disease is characterized by infected brood, called "mummies," which when removed from the comb, appear to be solid clumps, reminiscent of chalk pieces. The mummies can vary in color from white to dark gray or black (when fruiting bodies are present).
It has been suggested importation of pollen from abroad is correlated with the increase in incidence of chalkbrood, a fungal disease. Growth of the caustive organism, Ascosphaera apis, appears to be enhanced by a number of factors, including high moisture content (colonies not well ventilated in high humidity situations), cool temperatures and colony stress.
There is no recommended chemical control for chalkbrood; often requeening a colony will be effective treatment. Good hygienic behavior by a colony, that is quick removal of the mummies by workers, appears to aid in clearing up the symptoms. Although it remains somewhat of an enigma, some generalizations appear to be in order concerning chalkbrood according to most authorities:
- It occurs mostly in colonies expanding during the summer.
- It rarely kills a colony, but will weaken it, leading to a reduction in honey surplus.
- It is promoted by certain conditions, dampness, susceptibility of bee stock, inadequate nutrition, other diseases or conditions
(queenlessness, laying workers, chilled brood).
- It is spread mainly by beekeepers.
- It appears that requeening with resistant bee stock is the most likely way to clear up the symptoms.
For a fuller discussion of the disease, refer to appropriate sections in the works referenced above. L.A.F. Heath has also published more recent reviews. See: "Development of Chalk Brood in a Honey Bee Colony: A Review," Bee World, Vol. 63, No. 3, 1982, pp. 119-130 and "Chalk Brood Pathogens: A Review," Same volume, pp. 130-135.
Stonebrood
Besides chalkbrood, another disease called stonebrood has also been identified. This disease is presently of minor importance, but should not be totally ignored by bee inspectors and beekeepers. The causitive organism may be one of several species of Aspergillis. As with chalkbrood, no control has been developed.
Sacbrood
Sacbrood is a viral disease of the brood and considered of only minor importance. Affected larvae appear to the observer when removed from the cell to be a water-filled sack, hence the disease's name. There is no recommended control for sacbrood.
NOSEMA
Nosema is caused by the protozoan, Nosema Apis that lives in the mid-gut of the adult bee. Indications usually are defecation on the front of the hive and inside the hive. Sometimes the bees will crawl in the grass in front of the hive because they are unable to fly. If the day is warm but the weather cools early in the day they will die there as they are unable to get back into the hive. In it's more developed state it is characterized by bees with distended abdomens, disjointed wings, absence of sting reflex and reduced life span. Treatment is Fumidil-B in 1/1 sugar syrup. Usually one gallon is sufficient if fed in the spring. Two gallons are required for fall treatment in 2/1 sugar syrup. If fed in the fall Nosema usually won't appear in colonies in the springtime.
Beekeepers sometimes confuse Nosema disease with other adult honey bee maladies such as pesticide poisoning and dysentery. The effects of some pesticide poisoning can include any of a number of traits common to Nosema disease due to the way that certain pesticides work. Dysentery is caused by bees being unable to retain waste products within their bodies during long periods of confinement within a hive. This is sometimes due to poor quality of food stores but most frequently due to the unavailability of suitable conditions for cleansing flights. While dysentery is mostly a wintering disorder characterized by defecation within the hive, Nosema disease peaks during the springtime and is usually marked by defecation around the hive entrance.
ANTS
Ants are not usually serious pests in honey bee colonies. Occasionally, however, certain species may enter colonies to search for food or establish nesting sites. Ants are typically found between the inner and outer covers of the hive and in pollen traps. Even though ants seldom disturb the bees, they can be a nuisance to the beekeeper.
Once ants are established in a colony, they are difficult to control. To minimize ant problems maintain strong colonies and keep bottom boards raised off the ground. Also, remove brush, rotten wood, grass, and weeds from around the colonies. Single colonies can be placed on stands with oil or sticky barriers. Ant problem may also be reduced by allowing the bees access to the space between the inner and outer covers.
BEARS
Because much of the prime bee forage in the United States is wild or feral in nature, honey bee colonies are often located in prime bear habitat. This is particularly true in the northeast, southeast and west. Black bear is a significant predator on colonies and does a great deal of mechanical damage to a colony. The key to avoiding bear damage is a well-maintained electric fence.
The fence must be put up before colonies are located in bear habitat, otherwise it often will not stop depredations. Research suggests fences to have two or more "hot" wires, one eight inches off the ground, the other about forty inches high, with perhaps a third in the middle. Woven wire is also recommended for an inside fence and a wire mat about two feet wide should be laid around the fence base. Both fencing and mat should be connected to the ground wire of the fence controller. Controllers should be powerful enough to deliver 4,000 volts with a current of 20 mA.
MICE
Mice are a serious pest of stored combs and active honey bee colonies during the fall and winter months. These rodents chew combs and frames to make room for building their nests. Mouse urine on combs and frames and bees are reluctant to use the combs or clean out these nests in the spring.
Adult mice move into bee colonies in the fall and usually nest in the corners of the lower hive body away from the winter cluster. Bee colonies located near fields or at the edge of wood lots where mice are common are especially vulnerable. Mice can successfully build a nest even in a strong colony. They move in and out of the colony while the bees are inactive, and their nests furnish additional protection. Their activity may disturb the bees but the greater damage is to combs and equipment from their nest building.
Early in the fall, the entrance to bee colonies should be restricted with entrance cleats or hardware cloth (three mesh to the inch) to keep the mice out. Chase away any mice found inside a colony, then remove the nest and restrict the entrance. If comb chewing is extensive, replace the frames. When bees repair damaged beeswax comb, worker-sized cells are often replaced with drone comb.
HIVE BEETLE
Originally from Africa, the first discovery of small hive beetles in the US occurred in Florida in 1987. They are mainly limited to the southeastern portion of the United States, but are slowly spreading with the annual migration of honeybee colonies used for pollination in other areas of the country.
The life cycle of this beetle includes part of its development in the ground outside of the hive. Controls to prevent ants from climbing into the hive are believed to also be effective against the hive beetle. Several beekeepers are experimenting with the use of diatomaceous earth around the hive as a way to disrupt the beetle's lifecycle. The diatoms abrade the insect's surface, causing them to dehydrate and die.
Several pesticides are currently used against the small hive beetle. The chemical is commonly applied inside the corrugations of a piece of cardboard. Standard corrugations are large enough that a small hive beetle will enter the cardboard through the end but small enough that honeybees can not enter (and thus are kept away from the pesticide).
SKUNKS
Skunks are members of the weasel family.
They dig under foundations and take up residence under homes or in other buildings.
Skunks are disliked mainly because of their ability to voluntarily discharge an obnoxious odor when provoked, this scent is released primarily in self-defense.
Skunks can also be a serious threat to successful beekeeping, since they hamper the development of strong colonies. Being insectivorous (insect-eating), skunks will raid bee yards nightly, consuming large numbers of bees. While such attacks are most common in the spring, they also can occur throughout the summer and fall.
To capture bees, skunks scratch at the hive entrance and as guard bees come out to investigate the disturbance they are eaten by the skunk. A successful skunk will repeat the process several times and may feed at the hive entrance for an hour or more to rapidly depleting the bee population. Colonies visited by skunks may become defensive since skunks usually return night after night. Skunk predation can be detected by the front of the hive being scratched and muddy and the vegetation in front of the hive packed down or torn up.
In addition skunks leave behind small piles of chewed-up bee parts. The skunk chews the bees until all the juices are consumed, then spits out the remains. These remains resemble cuds of chewing tobacco. Opossums and raccoons sometimes attack an apiary in a similar manner and the damage they do is similar to that of skunks. The feces of these animals also contain large amount of honey bee exoskeletons since this material cannot be digested by animals.
Skunks may be discouraged by screens or queen excluders attached to the hive entrance. These devices hamper the skunk's efforts to scratch at the front entrance and if it climbs up the screen over the entrance, its belly becomes vulnerable to stings.
TRACHEAL MITE
Acarapis woodi is a microscopic parasitic mite that infests the airways of the honeybee. The first known infestation of the mites occurred in the British Isles in the early 20th century. First observed on the Isle of Wight in 1904, the mystery illness known as Isle of Wight Disease was not identified as caused by a parasite until 1921. It quickly spread to the rest of Great Britain. It was regarded as having wiped out the entire bee population of the isles (later genetic studies have found remnants that did survive) and dealt a devastating blow to British beekeeping. Brother Adam at the Buckfast Abbey developed a resistant hybrid bee known as the Buckfast bee, which is now available worldwide to combat acarine disease.
Diagnosis for tracheal mites generally involves the dissection and microscopic examination of a sample of bees from the hive.
Acarine mites, formerly known as tracheal mites are believed to have entered the US in 1984 via Mexico.
Mature female acarine mites leave the bee's airway and climb out on a hair of the bee where they wait until they can transfer to a young bee. Once on the new bee, they will move into the airways and begin laying eggs.
CONTROL AND TREATMENT: Refer to Menthol
VARROA MITES
Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni are parasitic mites that feed off the bodily fluids of adult, pupal and larval bees. Varroa mites can be seen with the naked eye as a small red or brown spot on the bee's thorax. Varroa is a carrier for a virus that is particularly damaging to the bees. Bees that are infected with this virus during their development will often have a visible "K-wing" deformity.
Varroa has led to the virtual elimination of feral bee colonies in many areas and is a major problem for kept bees in apiaries. Some feral populations are now recovering — it appears that they have been naturally selected for varroa resistance.
Varroa was first discovered in Southeast Asia in about 1904, but has now spread virtually worldwide. Varroa was discovered in the United States in 1987, in New Zealand in 2000.
Varroa is generally not a problem for a hive that is growing strongly. When the hive population growth reduced in preparation for winter or due to poor late summer forage the mite population growth can overtake that of the bees and can then destroy the hive. Often a colony will simply abscond (leave as in a swarm, but leaving no population behind) under such conditions.
Life Cycle
The life cycle of the varroa mite is very much synchronized with that of its honey bee host; it may be that hormones or pheromones of honey bees are necessary for the mite to complete its development. The female lays eggs in bee brood cells. Developing mites feed on developing honey bee larvae. Males and females copulate in the cell. The male dies, but pregnant females emerge from the cell along with their bee host and seek another cell to repeat the cycle. It is thought the length of the postcapping period in honey bees is an important indicator of eventual infestation. The longer the postcapping time, the more time there is for more female mites to develop.
Control methods in beehive
Synthetic chemicals
pyrethroid insecticide (Apistan) as strips
organophosphate insecticide (Coumaphos (Check-mite)) as strips
Natural occurring chemicals
Sugar esters (Sucrocide) in spray application
Oxalic acid trickling method or applied as vapor (Dany's BienenWohl or VARROX-Vaporiser)
Formic acid as vapor or pads
Food grade mineral oil as vapor and in direct application on paper or cords.
Essential oil especially lemon, mint, and thyme oil
Physical
Screened bottom board with sticky board is a purely physical method. It separates mites that fall through the screen and the sticky board prevents them from crawling back up.
Dusting with powdered sugar (Dowda Method)
freezing or heating of capped drone brood method
Behavioral
swarming or queen arrest method. When the honeybee brood cycle is interrupted the mites cannot multiply either.
Preventive measures and treatment
Varroa mites can be treated with commercially available miticides. Miticides must be applied strictly according to the label in order to minimize the risk of contamination of honey that might be consumed by humans. Proper use of miticides will also help to slow the development of resistance among the mites.
Varroa mites can also be controlled through non-chemical means. Most of these controls are intended to reduce the mite population to a manageable level, not to eliminate the mites completely.
Many beekeepers use a screened bottom board on their hives. When mites occasionally fall off a bee, they must climb back up to parasitize a new bee. If the beehive has a screened floor with mesh the right size, the mite will fall through and can not return to the beehive. The screened bottom board is also being credited with increased circulation of air which reduces condensation in a hive during the winter. (Studies at Cornell University done over several years found that screened bottoms have no measurable effect at all. Northeast Beekeeper Vol 1 #1 Jan 2004)
Powdered sugar (Dowda Method), talc or other "safe" powders with a grain size between 5 and 15 micrometers can be sprinkled on the bees. The powder does not harm the bees (and, if you use sugar, can even become a small source of feed), but does interfere with the mite's ability to maintain its hold on the bee. It is also believed to increase the bees' grooming behavior. This causes a certain percentage of mites to become dislodged. Powdered sugar works best as an amplifier of the effects of a screened bottom board.
Freezing drone brood takes advantage of varroa mites' preference for longer living drone brood. The beekeeper will put a frame in the hive that is sized to encourage the queen to lay primarily drone brood. Once the brood is capped, the beekeeper removes the frame and puts it in the freezer. This kills the varroa mites that are parasitizing those bees. It also kills the drone brood, but most hives produce an excess of drone bees so it is not generally considered a loss. After freezing, the frame can be returned to the hive. The nurse bees will clean out the dead brood (and dead mites) and the cycle continues.
Drone brood excision is a variation applicable to top bar hives. Honeybees tend to place comb suitable for drone brood along the bottom and outer margins of the comb. Cutting this off at a late stage of development ("purple eye stage") and discarding it reduces the mite load on the colony. It also allows for inspection and counting of varroa on the brood.
Small cell foundation (4.9 mm across - about 0.3 mm smaller than standard) is believed to limit the space in each cell that varroa mites have in which to inhabit and also to enhance the difference in size between worker and drone brood with the intention of making the drone comb traps more effective in trapping varroa mites. Small cell foundation has staunch advocates though controlled studies have been generally inconclusive.
The Konya revolving or rotating hive design is a patented invention of Lajos Konya, a beekeeper in Otteveny, Hungary. The hive has a cylindrical brood chamber, circular frames and an apparatus to rotate the frames according to a specific schedule. The rotation is believed to disrupt the varroa mite reproduction cycle with this rotation thereby reducing fecundity of the parasite.
Several attempts have been made (and are continuing) to breed bees with an increased "resistance" to varroa mites. In fact, the Africanized honeybee was originally an experiment to cross-breed mite resistance into the European honeybees common in the Americas.
WAX MOTHS
Galleria mellonella (greater wax moths) will not attack the bees directly, but feed on the wax used by the bees to build their honeycomb. Their full development to adults requires access to used brood comb or brood cell cleanings — these contain protein essential for the larvae's development, in the form of brood cocoons.
The destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae.
When honey supers are stored for the winter in a mild climate, or in heated storage, the wax moth larvae can destroy portions of the comb, even though they will not fully develop. Damaged comb may be scraped out and will be replaced by the bees. Wax moth larvae and eggs are killed by freezing, so storage in unheated sheds or barns in higher latitudes is the only control necessary.
Because wax moths can not survive a cold winter, they are usually not a problem for beekeepers in the northern U.S. or Canada, unless they survive winter in heated storage, or are brought from the south by purchase or migration of beekeepers. They thrive and spread most rapidly with temperatures above 90°F, so some areas with only occasional days that hot, rarely have a problem with wax moths.
Control and Treatment
A strong hive generally needs no treatment to control wax moths; the bees themselves will kill and clean out the moth larvae and webs. Wax moth larvae may fully develop in cell cleanings when such cleanings accumulate thickly where they are not accessible to the bees.
Wax moth development in comb is generally not a problem with top bar hives as unused combs are usually left in the hive during the winter. Since this type of hive is not used in severe wintering conditions, the bees will be able to patrol and inspect the unused comb.
Wax moths can be controlled chemically with naphthalene (mothballs) or paradichlorobenzene (urinal disks). If chemical methods are used the combs must be well aired out for several weeks before use. The use of naphthalene is discouraged because it accumulates in the wax.
Control by physical means can be done by freezing the comb to about zero degrees Fahrenheit overnight to kill the eggs, larvae and moths.
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GLOSSARY
Abdomen - the posterior or third region of the body of a bee enclosing the honey stomach, true stomach, intestine, sting, and reproductive organs.
Absconding swarm - an entire colony of bees that abandons the hive because of disease, wax moth, or other maladies.
Adulterated honey - any product labeled "Honey" or "Pure Honey" that contains ingredients other than honey but does not show these on the label. (Suspected mislabeling should be reported to the Food and Drug Administration.)
Afterswarm - a small swarm, usually headed by a virgin queen, which may leave the hive after the first or prime swarm has departed.
Alighting board - a small projection or platform at the entrance of the hive.
American foulbrood - a brood disease of honey bees caused by the spore-forming bacterium, Bacillus larvae.
Anaphylactic shock - constriction of the muscles surrounding the bronchial tubes of a human, caused by hypersensitivity to venom and resulting in sudden death unless immediate medical attention is received.
Apiary - colonies, hives, and other equipment assembled in one location for beekeeping operations; bee yard.
Apiculture - the science and art of raising honey bees.
Apis mellifera - scientific name of the honey bee found in the United States.
Automatic uncapper - automated device that removes the cappings from honey combs, usually by moving heated knives, metal teeth, or flails.
Bacillus larvae - the bacterium that causes American foulbrood
Bee blower - an engine with attached blower used to dislodge bees from combs in a honey super by creating a high-velocity, high-volume wind.
Bee bread - a mixture of collected pollen and nectar or honey, deposited in the cells of a comb to be used as food by the bees.
Bee brush - a brush or whisk broom used to remove bees from combs.
Bee escape - a device used to remove bees from honey supers and buildings by permitting bees to pass one way but preventing their return.
Beehive - a box or receptacle with movable frames, used for housing a colony of bees.
Bee metamorphosis - the three stages through which a bee passes before reaching maturity: egg, larva, and pupa.
Bee space - 1/4 to 3/8-inch space between combs and hive parts in which bees build no comb or deposit only a small amount of propolis.
Beeswax - a complex mixture of organic compounds secreted by special glands on the last four visible segments on the ventral side of the worker bee's abdomen and used for building comb. Its melting point is from 143.6 to 147.2 degrees F.
Bee tree - a tree with one of more hollows occupied by a colony of bees.
Bee veil - a cloth or wire netting for protecting the beekeeper's head and neck from stings.
Bee venom - the poison secreted by special glands attached to the stinger of the bee.
Benzaldehyde - a volatile, almond-smelling chemical used to drive bees out of honey supers.
Boardman feeder - a device for feeding bees in warm weather, consisting of an inverted jar with an attachment allowing access to the hive entrance.
Bottom board - the floor of a beehive.
Brace comb - a bit of comb built between two combs to fasten them together, between a comb and adjacent wood, or between two wooden parts such as top bars.
Braula coeca - the scientific name of a wingless fly commonly known as the bee louse.
Brood - bees not yet emerged from their cells: eggs, larvae, and pupae.
Brood chamber - the part of the hive in which the brood is reared; may include one or more hive bodies and the combs within.
Buff comb - a bit of wax built upon a comb or upon a wooden part in a hive but not connected to any other part.
Capped brood - pupae whose cells have been sealed with a porous cover by mature bees to isolate them during their nonfeeding pupal period; also called sealed brood.
Capping melter - melter used to liquefy the wax from cappings as they are removed from honey combs.
Cappings - the thin wax covering of cells full of honey; the cell coverings after they are sliced from the surface of a honey-filled comb.
Castes - the three types of bees that comprise the adult population of a honey bee colony: workers, drones, and queen.
Cell - the hexagonal compartment of a honey comb.
Cell bar - a wooden strip on which queen cups are placed for rearing queen bees.
Cell cup - base of an artificial queen cell, made of beeswax or plastic and used for rearing queen bees.
Chilled brood - immature bees that have died from exposure to cold; commonly caused by mismanagement.
Chunk honey - honey cut from frames and placed in jars along with liquid honey.
Clarifying - removing visible foreign material from honey or wax to increase its purity.
Cluster - a large group of bees hanging together, one upon another.
Colony - the aggregate of worker bees, drones, queen, and developing brood living together as a family unit in a hive or other dwelling.
Comb - a mass of six-sided cells made by honey bees in which brood is reared and honey and pollen are stored; composed of two layers united at their bases.
Comb foundation - a commercially made structure consisting of thin sheets of beeswax with the cell bases of worker cells embossed on both sides in the same manner as they are produced naturally by honey bees.
Comb honey - honey produced and sold in the comb, in either thin wooden sections (4 x 4 inches or 4 x 5 inches) or circular plastic frames.
Creamed honey - honey which has been al lowed to crystallize, usually under controlled conditions, to produce a tiny crystal.
Crimp-wired foundation - comb foundation into which crimp wire is embedded vertically during foundation manufacture.
Cross-pollination - the transfer of pollen from an anther of one plant to the stigma of a different plant of the same species.
Crystallization - see "Granulation."
Cut-comb honey - comb honey cut into various sizes, the edges drained, and the pieces wrapped or packed individually
Decoy hive - a hive placed to attract stray swarms.
Demaree - the method of swarm control that separates the queen from most of the brood within the same hive.
Dequeen - to remove a queen from a colony.
Dextrose - one of the two principal sugars found in honey; forms crystals during granulation. Also known as glucose.
Dividing - separating a colony to form two or more units.
Division board feeder - a wooden or plastic compartment which is hung in a hive like a frame and contains sugar syrup to feed bees.
Double screen - a wooden frame, 1/2 to 3/4 inch thick, with two layers of wire screen to separate two colonies within the same hive, one above the other. An entrance is cut on the upper side and placed to the rear of the hive for the upper colony.
Drawn combs - combs with cells built out by honey bees from a sheet of foundation.
Drifting of bees - the failure of bees to return to their own hive in an apiary containing many colonies. Young bees tend to drift more than older bees, and bees from small colonies tend to drift into larger colonies.
Drone - the male honey bee.
Drone comb - comb measuring about four cells per linear inch that is used for drone rearing and honey storage.
Drone layer - an infertile or unmated laying queen.
Drumming - pounding on the sides of a hive to make the bees ascend into another hive placed over it.
Dwindling - the rapid dying off of old bees in the spring; sometimes called spring dwindling or disappearing disease.
Dysentery - an abnormal condition of adult bees characterized by severe diarrhea and usually caused by starvation, low-quality food, moist surroundings, or nosema infection.
Electric embedder - a device allowing rapid embedding of wires in foundation with electrically produced heat.
European foulbrood - an infectious brood disease of honey bees caused by streptococcus p/u ton.
Extracted honey - honey removed from the comb by centrifugal force.
Fermentation - a chemical breakdown of honey, caused by sugar-tolerant yeast and associated with honey having a high moisture content.
Fertile queen - a queen, inseminated instrumentally or mated with a drone, which can lay fertilized eggs.
Field bees - worker bees at least three weeks old that work in the field to collect nectar, pollen, water, and propolis.
Flash heater - a device for heating honey very rapidly to prevent it from being damaged by sustained periods of high temperature.
Follower board - a thin board used in place of a frame usually when there are fewer than the normal number of frames in a hive.
Food chamber - a hive body filled with honey for winter stores.
Frame - four pieces of wood designed to hold honey comb, consisting of a top bar, a bottom bar, and two end bars.
Fructose - the predominant simple sugar found in honey; also known as levulose.
Fumidil-B - the trade name for Fumagillin, an antibiotic used in the prevention and suppression of nosema disease.
Fume board - a rectangular frame, the size of a super, covered with an absorbent material such as burlap, on which is placed a chemical repellent to drive the bees out of supers for honey removal.
Glucose - see "Dextrose."
Grafting - removing a worker larva from its cell and placing it in an artificial queen cup in order to have it reared into a queen.
Grafting tool - a needle or probe used for trans ferring larvae in grafting of queen cells.
Granulation - the formation of sugar (dextrose) crystals in honey.
Hive - a man-made home for bees.
Hive body - a wooden box which encloses the frames.
Hive stand - a structure that supports the hive.
Hive tool - a metal device used to open hives, pry frames apart, and scrape wax and propolis from the hive parts.
Honey - a sweet viscid material produced by bees from the nectar of flowers, composed largely of a mixture of dextrose and levulose dissolved in about 17 percent water; contains small amounts of sucrose, mineral matter, vitamins, proteins, and enzymes.
Honeydew - a sweet liquid excreted by aphids, leaflioppers, and some scale insects that is collected by bees, especially in the absence of a good source of nectar.
Honey extractor - a machine which removes honey from the cells of comb by centrifugal force.
Honey flow - a time when nectar is plentiful and bees produce and store surplus honey.
Honey gate - a faucet used for drawing honey from drums, cans, or extractors.
Honey house - building used for extracting honey and storing equipment.
Honey pump - a pump used to transfer honey from a sump or extractor to a holding tank or strainer.
Honey stomach - an organ in the abdomen of the honey bee used for carrying nectar, honey, or water.
Honey sump - a clarifying tank between the extractor and honey pump for removing the coarser particles of comb introduced during extraction.
Increase - to add to the number of colonies, usually by dividing those on hand.
Inner cover - a lightweight cover used under a standard telescoping cover on a beehive.
Instrumental insemination - the introduction of drone spermatozoa into the genital organs of a virgin queen by means of special instruments.
Invertase - an enzyme produced by the honey bee which helps to transform sucrose to dextrose and levulose.
Larva (plural, larvae) - the second stage of bee metamorphosis; a white, legless, grublike insect.
Laying worker - a worker which lays infertile eggs, producing only drones, usually in colonies that are hopelessly queenless.
Levulose - see "Fructose."
Mating flight - the flight taken by a virgin queen while she mates in the air with several drones.
Mead - honey wine.
Migratory beekeeping - the moving of colonies of bees from one locality to another during a single season to take advantage of two or more honey flows.
Nectar - a sweet liquid secreted by the nectaries of plants; the raw product of honey.
Nectar guide - color marks on flowers believed to direct insects to nectar sources.
Nectaries - the organs of plants which secrete nectar, located within the flower (floral nectaries) or on other portions of the plant (extrafloral nectaries).
Nosema - a disease of the adult honey bee caused by the protozoan Nosema apis.
Nucleus (plural, nuclei) - a small hive of bees, usually covering from two to five frames of comb and used primarily for starting new colonies, rearing or storing queens; also called "nuc."
Nurse bees - young bees, three to ten days old, which feed and take care of developing brood.
Observation hive - a hive made largely of glass or clear plastic to permit observation of bees at work.
Out-apiary - an apiary situated away from the home of the beekeeper.
Package bees - a quantity of adult bees (2 to 5 pounds), with or without a queen, contained in a screened shipping cage.
Paralysis - a virus disease of adult bees which affects their ability to use legs or wings normally.
Parthenogenesis - the development of young from unfertilized eggs. In honey bees the un-fertilized eggs produce drones.
PDB (Paradichlorobenzene) - crystals used to fumigate combs against wax moth.
Piping - a series of sounds made by a queen, frequently before she emerges from her cell.
Play flight - short flight taken in front of or near the hive to acquaint young bees with their immediate surroundings; sometimes mistaken for robbing or preparation for swarming.
Pollen - the male reproductive cell bodies produced by anthers of flowers, collected and used by honey bees as their source of protein.
Pollen basket - a flattened depression surrounded by curved spines or hairs, located on the outer surface of the bee's hind legs and adapted for carrying pollen gathered from flowers or propolis to the hive.
Pollen cakes - moist mixtures of either pollen supplements or substitutes fed to the bees in early spring to stimulate brood rearing.
Pollen insert - a device inserted in the entrance of a colony into which hand-collected pollen is placed. As the bees leave the hive and pass through the trap, some of the pollen adheres to their bodies and is carried to the blossom, resulting in cross-pollination.
Pollen substitute - any material such as soybean flour, powdered skim milk, brewer's yeast, or a mixture of these used in place of pollen to stimulate brood rearing.
Pollen supplement - a mixture of pollen and pollen substitutes used to stimulate brood rearing in periods of pollen shortage.
Pollen trap - a device for removing pollen loads from the pollen baskets of incoming bees.
Pollination - the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigrna of flowers.
Pollinator - the agent that transfers pollen from an anther to a stigma: bees, flies, beetles, etc.
Pollinizer - the plant source of pollen used for pollination.
Prime swarm - the first swarm to leave the parent colony, usually with the old queen.
Proboscis - the mouthparts of the bee that form the sucking tube or tongue.
Propolis - sap or resinous materials collected from trees or plants by bees and used to strengthen the comb, close up cracks, etc.; also called bee glue.
Pupa - the third stage in the development of the honey bee, during which the organs of the larva are replaced by those that will be used by an adult.
Queen - a fully developed female bee, larger and longer than a worker bee.
Queen cage - a small cage in which a queen and three or four worker bees may be confined for shipping and/ or introduction into a colony.
Queen cage candy - candy made by kneading powdered sugar with invert sugar syrup until it forms a stiff dough; used as food in queen cages.
Queen cell - a special elongated cell, resembling a peanut shell, in which the queen is reared. It is usually an inch or more long, has an inside diameter of about 1/3 inch, and hangs down from the comb in a vertical position.
Queen clipping - removing a portion of one or both front wings of a queen to prevent her from flying.
Queen cup - a cup-shaped cell made of beeswax or plastic which hangs vertically in a hive and which may become a queen cell if an egg or larva is placed in it and bees add wax to it.
Queen excluder - metal or plastic device with spaces that permit the passage of workers but restrict the movement of drones and queens to a specific part of the hive.
Queen substance - pheromone material secreted from glands in the queen bee and transmitted throughout the colony by workers to alert other workers of the queen's presence.
Rabbet - a narrow piece of folded metal fastened to the inside upper end of the hive body from which the frames are suspended.
Rendering wax - the process of melting combs and cappings and removing refuse from the wax.
Resmethrin (SBP-1382) - a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide used to kill diseased honey bee colonies.
Robbing - stealing of nectar, or honey, by bees from other colonies.
Royal jelly - a highly nutritious glandular secre tion of young bees, used to feed the queen and young brood.
Sacbrood - a brood disease of honey bees caused by a virus.
Scout bees - worker bees searching for a new source of pollen, nectar, propolis, water, or a new home for a swarm of bees.
Sealed brood - see "Capped brood."
Self-pollination - the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the same plant.
Self-spacing frames - frames constructed so that they are a bee space apart when pushed together in a hive body.
Skep - a beehive made of twisted straw without movable frames.
Slatted rack - a wooden rack that fits between the bottom board and hive body. Bees make better use of the lower brood chamber with increased brood rearing, less comb gnawing, and less congestion at the front entrance.
Slumgum - the refuse from melted comb and cappings after the wax has been rendered or removed.
Smoker - a device in which burlap, wood shavings, or other materials are slowly burned to produce smoke which is used to subdue bees.
Solar wax extractor - a glass-covered insulated box used to melt wax from combs and cappings by the heat of the sun.
Spermatheca - a special organ of the queen in which the sperm of the drone is stored.
Spur embedder - a device used for mechanically embedding wires into foundation by employing hand pressure.
Sting - the modified ovipositor of a worker honey bee used as a weapon of offense.
Streptococcus pluton - bacterium that causes European foulbrood.
Sucrose - principal sugar found in nectar.
Super - any hive body used for the storage of surplus honey. Normally it is placed over or above the brood chamber.
Supersedure - a natural replacement of an established queen by a daughter in the same hive. Shortly after the young queen commences to lay eggs, the old queen disappears.
Surplus honey - honey removed from the hive which exceeds that needed by bees for their own use.
Swarm - the aggregate of worker bees, drones, and usually the old queen that leaves the parent colony to establish a new colony.
Swarming - the natural method of propagation of the honey bee colony.
Swarm cell - queen cells usually found on the bottom of the combs before swarming.
Terramycin - an antibiotic used to prevent American and European foulbrood.
Tested queen - a queen whose progeny shows she has mated with a drone of her own race and has other qualities which would make her a good colony mother.
Thin super foundation - a comb foundation used for comb honey or chunk honey production which is thinner than that used for brood rearing.
Transferring - the process of changing bees and combs from common boxes to movable frame hives.
Travel stain - the dark discoloration on the surface of comb honey left on the hive for some time, caused by bees tracking propolis over the surface.
T-super - a comb honey super with T-shaped strips supporting the sections to provide more space for bee travel.
Uncapping knife - a knife used to shave or re move the cappings from combs of sealed honey prior to extraction; usually heated by steam or electricity.
Uniting - combining two or more colonies to form a larger colony.
Venom allergy - a condition in which a person, when stung, may experience a variety of symptoms ranging from a mild rash or itchiness to anaphylactic shock. A person who is stung and experiences abnormal symptoms should consult a physician before working bees again.
Venom hypersensitivity - a condition in which a person, if stung, is likely to experience an aphylactic shock. A person with this condition should carry an emergency insect sting kit at all times during warm weather.
Virgin queen - an unmated queen.
Wax glands - the eight glands that secrete bees wax; located in pairs on the last four visible ventral abdominal segments.
Wax moth - larvae of the moth Golleria mellonclia, which seriously damage brood and empty combs.
Winter cluster - the arrangement of adult bees within the hive during winter.
Worker bee - a female bee whose reproductive organs are undeveloped. Worker bees do all the work in the colony except for laying fertile eggs.
Worker comb - comb measuring about five cells to the inch, in which workers are reared and honey and pollen are stored.
HONEY HEALING POWERS
Honey's healing powers
Australian Broadcasting Commission
Science Online
Printed in Hivelights Vol 13 #4 p 26
Australian researchers have revealed the secret explanation for the deadly bug-killing properties of honey. Researcher, Shona Blair from the University of Sydney has found that, when diluted honey is applied to a moist wound, it produces hydrogen peroxide, a known anti-bacterial agent. The research has also revealed that honey is powerful even against drug-resistant hospital killer golden staph Staphylococcus aureus.
Ms Blair said hydrogen peroxide is produced when the enzyme glucose oxidase (produced by bees) reacts with water in the wound and glucose in the honey. "It’s like bleach, she said. "If you put bleach on your skin it would burn you, but this is at such a low concentration it doesn’t harm the skin."
Ms Blair found that honey diluted to one per cent inhibited the growth of S. aureau for about three hours. Stronger solutions of honey at two per cent and three per cent inhibited growth for five hours and 10 hours respectively. "There was no moisture or pus out of the wound," she said.
Another reason for honey’s antibacterial properties is its high sugar content. Honey left in the cupboard never goes bad, partly because bacteria need moisture to grow. Honey has so many sugar molecules that any available water molecules become bound to them, and aren’t available for bacteria to use.
Honey is still used in Africa, India and the Middle East, and the Greek philosopher Aristotle often prescribed different types of honey for different ailments. Honey was known to have powerful wound-healing properties in ancient times, but its properties appear to have been forgotten. To apply honey to a wound. put it directly on to the wound, or on to the dressing. Change once or twice a day. It may sting a little at first. Raw honey from health food stores is best, as it has not been heated which can affect its bacterial properties.
Antibacterial properties of honey
Abridged from and article by Dr. Peter Molan
Honey Research Unit, University of Waikato, NZ
printed in Hivelights Vol 15 No1 p19
Honey has been known to have antibacterial properties for more than a century. Although it has been used as a medicine since ancient times, initially it was just known to be an effective remedy. Now it can be seen that the effectiveness of honey in many of its medical uses is due to its antibacterial activity. It is well established that honey inhibits a broad spectrum of bacterial and fungal activity. There has not been much distinction made between the different types of antimicrobial activity in honey to which the various microbial species are sensitive.
Antibacterial activity in honey can be caused by
- Osmotic effect, whereby water is drawn away from the microorganisms reducing their ability to survive,
- Acidity, honey is acidic, its pH being between 3.2 and 4.5, which inhibits growth in many pathogens,
- Hydrogen Peroxide, which is produced enzymically in the honey by the bee, and
- Phytochemical Factors, these non-peroxide antibacterial factors are believed to be the many complex phenols and organic acids often
referred to as flavonoids. These latter complex chemicals that do not breakdown under heat or light provide Manuka honey with its
'unique' antibacterial properties.
In the time of the Greek philosopher Aristotle it was recommended that honey collected in specific regions and seasons (and therefore presumably from different floral sources) be used for the treatment of particular ailments, but in modern medicine clinical practitioners have not heeded these views. Although it appears that the honey from certain plants has better antibacterial activity than that from others, little work has been done to measure these variations. Honeydew honey from the conifer forests of the mountainous regions of central Europe has been found to have particularly high antibacterial activity, likewise honey from Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) in New Zealand has been found to have a high non-peroxide activity. Studies on the effectiveness against wound-infecting species of bacteria show that Manuka honey is more effective than other honeys for Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus while other honey was superior for the other 5 tested species, including Salmonella, Streptococcus, and Pseudomonas There was little difference between the two types of antibacterial activity in their effectiveness, although some bacteria were more sensitive to the action of one type of honey than the other.
MAKING A SPLIT
Generally, when the phrase ‘making splits’ comes up, the image of increasing one’s beekeeping holdings is featured. That is, making two or more colonies from a single parent. That is because splitting a colony is the easiest and least expensive way to increase the number of colonies owned. But there are other reasons to split a colony, and, there are nearly as many ways to split one as there are colonies to split.
The overall principle in making a split is to start with a large, healthy, populous colony (or colonies). The goal is to remove ‘some’ uncapped brood, ‘some’ honey and pollen resources to a new box, or two, to start a new colony. A new queen may, or may not be added. The question most often asked is “How much is ‘some’?” Usually, you do not want to reduce the parent colony to less than half its resources so it can continue to keep pace with the season. You may need to take bees, brood or food from more than one parent to successfully build a new split. Splits, then, should have enough nurse bees to care for the brood, some foragers to gather resources, sealed brood for immediate colony expansion, younger brood for continued expansion and some resources for immediate consumption.
Splits can be made to ‘make increase’, or for other reasons. Popular swarm control/prevention measures include splitting a large colony to allow room for expansion, and to relieve brood nest congestion. Often the ‘new’ colony is rejoined to the parent when the swarming urge is over so the actual number of colonies does not increase. One technique used to reduce tracheal mite infestation is to divide a colony later in the season, dispatching the older, infested bees, and overwintering the younger, less infested bees. There are few things that are as fulfilling as creating a new colony, especially if it is ‘free’, and you are the one who made it happen. Splits enable both to occur.
POLLEN SUPPLEMENT
POLLEN SUPPLEMENTS AND SUBSTITUTES
Pollen is the principal source of proteins, vitamins, lipids and minerals for honey bees. Feeding pollen supplement or substitutes is one of the best beekeeping practices to encourage colony growth. A pollen substitute is any material that can be fed to colonies to replace its need for natural pollen. A pollen supplement is a pollen substitute that contains about 10 % natural pollen (dry weight basis). A pollen supplement can best be described as a pollen extender. Among the most commonly used protein sources are soybean meal, brewer's yeast, low-lactose whey (dried) and Torula yeast. Pollen substitutes and extenders can be fed in a moist patty, or dry. If fed in a patty, it should be placed as close as possible to the combs containing unsealed brood. Dry materials can be fed in a feed-lot system but this requires protection from adverse weather conditions and good foraging conditions.
The are numerous recipes for both pollen substitutes and pollen supplements. The following recipes (modified from The Encyclopedia of Beekeeping, 1985) are a sample and are given in parts by weight, for dry mixes and moist patties, as appropriate.
Pollen Supplements
Parts: Dry Mix
Parts: Moist Patty
soybean flower:pollen (3:1)
sucrose:water (2:1)
brewers yeast:pollen (2:1)
sucrose:water (6:1)
recipe #1
recipe #2
1
2
1
2
Pollen Substitutes
Parts: Dry
Parts: Moist
brewers yeast or soybean flower
sucrose
water
2
3
3
3
2.5
MEDICATIONS
Choose a medicine to learn more about it:
API Life VAR
API Life VAR is used to combat the Varroa mite.
The varroa mite shows no resistance to it and it is not harmful to the bees or to the beekeeper!! It does not contaminate the comb. It's a safe, easy to use alternative to those "Hard Chemicals".
Api-Life VAR is a thymol based miticide which is suitable for organic use. Sold in Europe for over 15 years, and has remained affective, without mite resistance. It's safe for your bees, not like nasty chemicals. Api-Life VAR is a formulation of Thymol, Eucalytol, Menthol, and Camphor. The active ingredient, Thymol, is not an essential oil but rather a purified form. The same effectiveness cannot be achieved with essential oils alone.
Note: Use of API Life VAR is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Apiguard
Apiguard® is a natural product specifically designed for use in beehives. It is a slow release gel matrix, ensuring correct dosage of the active ingredient thymol. Thymol is a naturally occurring substance derived from the plant thyme. It has a proven high efficacy against the varroa mite and is also active against both tracheal mite and chalkbrood.
Apiguard® is a specially designed and patented slow release gel containing thymol. Apiguard gel, presented in 50gm ready to use aluminum trays, regulates the liberation of thymol within the honeybee colony and provides a much more efficient control of hive pests than was possible before.
According to Vita the manufacturer of Apiguard, it has no harmful effect on the honeybee colony, neither on brood nor on adults.
Apiguard® is extremely easy to use. It is simply a matter of placing the opened tray face upwards in the top of brood frames when the temperature is above 60F, preferably centered over the colony. After 10 days examine the tray and if depleted replace with a second tray. If there is product left in the tray after 10 days leave until day 14 and then replace. Leave a second tray in position for a further 2-4 weeks and treatment has been completed (duration of treatment therefore lasts 4-6 weeks).
Note: Use of Apiguard is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Apistan
The product Apistan is for managing Varroa mites in honey bee colonies. However, it is imperative that it be used properly in conjunction with an integrated pest management approach. Otherwise, there are numerous negative consequences that could result, including resistance development, and residues in wax and honey.
In many cases Apistan no longer works because of the resistance the mites have quickly built against this compound. As a result, many beekeepers have switched to CheckMite.
The label that accompanies Apistan is informative and MUST be read.
Note: Use of Apistan is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Check-Mite
CheckMite is a compound for the control of varroa mites and small hive beetles in honey bee hives. CheckMite is highly efficacious on varroa that have become resistant to fluvalinate (Apistan). CheckMite is applied as a plastic strip, in which the compound is embedded. The strips are hung in the hive for 45 days for varroa control (length of time for small hive beetle control varies by state). There was a widespread loss of hives in 1999 due to resistance to Apistan; the introduction of CheckMite+ was extremely important in saving beekeepers from further losses.
Note: Use of CheckMite is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Fumidil-B
Fumidil-B is an antibiotic for the treatment of Nosema*.
*Nosema apis is a spore-forming parasite that invades the intestinal tracts of adult bees and causes nosema disease. Nosema is also associated with Black queen-cell virus. Nosema is normally only a problem when the bees can not leave the hive to eliminate waste (for example, during an extended cold spell in winter). When the bees are unable to void (cleansing flights), they can develop dysentery
Note: Use of Fumidil-B is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Menthol
Currently there are several methods used to treat bee hives with menthol.
Here we describe the 'Traditional' and the Blue Shop Towel' methods.
Traditional Method
Buy one standard pack of menthol for each hive... Follow directions.
Blue Shop Towel Method
Ingredients: 4 standard packs of menthol and 16 ozs of canola oil.
1) Prepare Towels:
Cut shop towel roll in half and remove the cardboard tube. What you end up with should look like a tall blue roll of toilet tissue.
2) Measure and mix components:
Place four standard packs of menthol crystals (6.8 ozs. or 200 grams) in a 16 oz. pyrex measuring cup, then add canola oil to fill. Microwave for 4 mins. at 50% power. Check to see that all crystals dissolved--if not, microwave for an additional minute at 50% power.
Dump this heated menthol-canola mix into a 3 pound coffee can or similar sized container.
Alternately, you could melt the crystals with the canola oil in a 3 pound metal coffee can on an electric stove or hot plate using medium heat. You could also use a gas stove as shown on the right but be very careful. The mixture is flammable and the fumes are very potent.
3) Add paper towels:
Place one of the half-rolls of paper towels into the coffee can of warm menthol-canola oil.
Flip the towels in the can until all towels are evenly saturated. If one end of towels are somewhat dry, flip the towels putting dry end down--in about 10 minutes, all will be evenly saturated.
Thus, 16 ozs (2 cups) of menthol-canola oil mix will saturate a half-roll (55 half-sheets) of shop towels -- using 2 half-sheets per colony, this will treat 27 colonies.
Towels can be stored at room temperature indefinitely if held in a tightly sealed container. (A zip-Lock bag works nicely).
4) Apply to colonies:
Do not add to colonies while a honey flow is on.
Place one of the 1/2 sheets on the top bars at the front or back, (not right over the cluster) of each brood chamber. Colonies can be treated anytime during the winter when temperatures rise above about 45 F. The bees will chew up the paper towels and discard them at the entrance in 3-5 days (or longer in winter).
Two treatments are required, so you must repeat the application in ten to fourteen days.
5) That's it.
Note: The best time to treat is September. Tracheal mites are usually not a problem from May to September, so no menthol needs to be used until the time that mites begin to build up in late August or September.
It's best to treat your bees twice a year, though -- spring and fall.
Don't just assume you have control. Be sure.
Note: Use of menthol is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
What is menthol ?
Menthol is a terpenoid, found in the essential oils of the mint family (Mentha spp), such as peppermint, spearmint and others. Menthol (C10H20O) is solid at room temperature, forming long crystals that have a fatty touch.
Menthol is poorly soluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol or oils.
Besides the use as an aroma in many different food products (especially dental products, such as chewing gum, cough drops and confectionary, such as mints), menthol is contained in non-prescription products for short-term relief of minor sore throat and minor mouth or throat irritation, for example in lip balms and cough medicines. It is classed as an antipruritic, which reduces itching. Menthol is also contained in combination products used for relief of muscle aches, sprains, and similar conditions, as well as in decongestants. In addition, it is used as an additive in certain cigarette brands, both for flavor and to reduce the throat and sinus irritation caused by smoking. Menthol also is a common ingredient in mouthwash.
Note: Use of Menthol is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Mite-Away II
Mite-Away II® is a formic acid treatment for the control of varroa and tracheal mites. It should be used as part of an integrated pest control management program. DO NOT APPLY WHILE HONEY SUPERS ARE ON. Allow at least 2 weeks from treatment before placing honey supers on the hive.
One single application pad can be used to treat 6-20 frames of brood. A 1 1/2 inch spacer rim and two small spacer sticks are required. To apply you must place the pad on top of two spacing sticks which go on top of the brood frames. Place the pad with the holes facing down to help the formic acid circulate throughout the hive. All holes in the hive must be sealed except for the bottom hive entrance, which must be open during the entire treatment. Mite-Away II® should be used when the day time temperatures are in the range of 50-79 degrees Fahrenheit. If daily temperatures exceed 82 degrees Fahrenheit in the first seven days of treatment you must remove the pads. Store pads in original container until heat wave is over. Treatment of hives when temperatures exceed 82 degrees Fahrenheit can cause major damage or loss of colonies. Brood mortality may occur for up to 14 days during the start of treatment with brood rearing returning to normal after treatment.
This is a very dangerous chemical:
Safety equipment must be worn when treating with Mite-Away II®. Read all safety manuals prior to use. Do not wear nylon suit or jacket or coverall when using Mite-Away II®.
Note: Use of Mite-Away II is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Oxalic Acid
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has registered the new active ingredient oxalic acid for use against the varroa mite.
The West Virginia Department of Agriculture has been given authorization by the State of West Virginia to allow the use of oxalic acid by beekeepers for the treatment of varroa mites.
Oxalic acid (OA) is a natural acaricide used for treatment against varroa mites in colonies with no or low brood such as packages or swarms.
Oxalic acid applications are for outdoor use only and should be used only in late fall or early spring when little or no brood is present. It will NOT control varroa mites in capped brood.
DO NOT use when honey supers are in place to prevent contamination of honey.
Oxalic acid is labeled for application by three different methods:
1.By Solution to Package Bees (Oxalic acid in sugar solution is applied as a spray to the package)
2.By Solution to Beehives (Oxalic acid in sugar solution is trickled between frames and other spaces)
3.Vapor Treatment of Beehives (Oxalic acid dihydrate is heated and the vapor sublimates in the hive)
For additional information about oxalic acid click on the link below.
Note: Use of Oxalic Acid is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
Tylan
TYLAN (tylosin tartrate) is for the control of American foulbrood (Paenibacillus larvae) in honey bees.
This is the first approval by the FDA for the use of TYLAN Soluble in a minor species (honey bees). TYLAN Soluble, a product of Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly and Company, Greenfield, Indiana, was already approved for therapeutic uses in chickens and swine and production uses in turkeys.
TYLAN Soluble is the second approved new animal drug for honey bees that controls American foulbrood (Paenibacillus larvae). FDA reviewed extensive data to ensure the product met all necessary effectiveness, animal health, human food safety, and environmental standards.
The approval of this supplemental new animal drug application relied on publicly available safety and effectiveness data contained in Public Master File 5783, which were compiled under the oversight of the National Research Support Project-7 (NSRP-7), a national agricultural research program for obtaining clearances for use of new animal drugs in minor animal species and for special uses. Studies were conducted by USDA Bee Research Laboratories.
The FDA has concluded that the honey derived from honey bees fed tylosin tartrate is safe when the animals are fed according to the approved labeling. Additional information on this approval may be obtained by contacting Joan C. Gotthardt, D.V.M., Director, Division of Therapeutic Drugs for Food Animals, FDA, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of New Animal Drug Evaluation, 7500 Standish Place, HFV-130, Rockville, MD 20855, 301 827-7571; E-mail: jgotthar@cvm.fda.gov.
Note: Use of Tylan is at your own risk. No endorsement is made or implied by KVBA.
REQUEENING
Requeening a Colony
Requeen a honey bee colony every year for better performance and production. The serviceable life of 99 percent of the queens is exhausted by the end of her second year in the colony. Requeening every other year is the least desirable practice. When the aged queen fails during the stress of the spring buildup, the colony organization becomes disrupted and the colony is nonproductive.
Order queens from a reputable breeder with a good line of bee stock. Place your orders well in advance so the breeder may raise the number of queens you need and mail them to you on the date you request delivery.
August is a good month to requeen a colony. When queens are introduced in August and not accepted by a colony, there is time to reorder and introduce the second queen to the colony.
When you are inspecting colonies in July or August, locate the queen and confine her to the lower brood chamber with a queen excluder over this chamber. When your queens arrive, you will have reduced the time required to find the queen in the colony.
When the caged queens arrive, remove the paper over the screen and place two or three drops of clean water on the screen away from the candy. Place the queen cages in a cool dark room until you are ready to introduce the queens into the colonies.
When you are ready to introduce the queens into the colonies, prepare the cages for introduction into the colonies. Remove the paper wrapping and stamps from the cages.
Remove the cork from the end of the cage to expose the candy which seals the queen in the cage. Place the queen cage in the shade near the hive into which the new caged queen will be introduced.
Requeening a hive is one of the most difficult parts of beekeeping. Too many times the new queen is killed by the bees when the beekeeper not fully understand what need to be done to make the bees accept a new queen.
There is a simple rule; make the bees want a new queen, and they will accept one.
So how do we get there? The fastest way is to remove the old queen, and introduce the newPush on cage queen to the hive straight away.
The push on cage is being used here. It is pushed into the comb where there are emerging young bees after brushing or shaking all the old bees off first. The new queen is left alone in the cage, and the frame is returned to the brood area and the hive is left for 10 days. The young bees emerging start feeding the new queen, and her pheromones are spread in the hive. Often the bees chew away wax so the queen will be able to walk out of the cage after a few days. This method works most of the time when there is a good honey flow.
However, there are times when it doesn't work to simply change the old queen for a younger. And because there are many things, some that we not yet fully understand, that determine whether the bees will accept the new queen or not, we should have a method that is safer and not depending on if there is a flow going on or having to feed. It does help to wait after removing the old queen before introducing the new. How long to wait is again depending on several factors, and can be anything from a couple of hours to two days.
There is a way to requeen that many have been using with 95% result. It was invented by a Swedish beekeeper, Lars Hedlund. You find the old queen, put her in a cage, and leave the cage in or close to the brood area. After two days you come back and exchange that cage for another with the new queen in it. The new cage should have a candy plug so the bees can eat her out. Leave the bees for 10 days before checking if she has been accepted.
Why two days in the cage? After that period the bees start to understand that something is wrong with the queen when she is not laying eggs anymore in the cells. It you wait longer the bees will start making their own queen from a small larvae. Once they have decided to do that they will not accept another queen so easily, and might kill the new queen you introduce. It is all a matter of timing.
TIPS & TRICKS
Useful tips on smoking bees, working swarms and removing bees from supers in order to extract honey.
Smoking Bees
Within and outside the hive, bees communicate extensively by smell. Nectar, pollen, diseases, other insects, brood, the queen, drones - everything in the hive has an odor. As complicated as the bees’ odor communication system appears to be, the manner that beekeepers have developed to overcome the bees’ ability to perceive odors - both inside and outside the hive - is to puff cool, white smoke in and around the hive. For reasons not clearly understood, smoke stimulates bees to move to honey stores and engorge on honey. This can clearly be seen after applying smoke to a colony.
Early smokers were little more than a smoldering fire beneath or near a hive. Later, tobacco pipes were modified to direct smoke into hives as were other early devices. After evolving through many different designs and styles, beekeepers in North America have a small, but adequate range of smoker designs from which to choose. The years of numerous smoker designs being commercially manufactured seems to have passed.
Smoker fuels are as numerous as are the beekeepers who use them. However, common fuels are: grass clippings, pine straw, sumac pods, cloth rags, rotted wood, wood shavings, and burlap. Essentially, anything can be used that produces cool, white billowing smoke and has not been treated with pesticides or with fire retardants.
Under normal conditions, smoke is effective for about 2-4 minutes before needing to be reapplied. Only use enough to turn the bees back into the colony and direct smoke into the hive. Attempting to smoke bees outside the colony is generally an ineffective way to get them to move where you want them.
Working a Swarm
Swarms are, without a doubt, both a blessing and a curse. The blessing part is that a swarm can be harvested and put to work in an apiary.
The first thing to do with a swarm is collect it. At times easy, sometimes impossible. Swarms high in the air can be collected with vacuum devices, long ladders, or heroic gymnastics. Most can be collected into bags, boxes, supers or whatever and transported to permanent housing; ensure that there is enough ventilation, however, putting a strong swarm into an air-tight container is a recipe for disaster! Swarms are generally the gentlest of bees, but if left exposed for several days, they can become hungry and much more defensive. Always have a lighted smoker ready when working swarms.
Once collected and transported, a beekeeper can do many things with this bunch of bees. The deciding factor is often the size of a swarm. Large swarms, 4 or 5 lbs. Can easily run themselves. Smaller swarms, 1-3 lbs. Can be combined with other swarms for a large colony; or added to a large colony to boost its nectar and pollen gathering capability during a major flow.
To be safe, all swarms should be considered infested with both tracheal and Varroa mites and treated accordingly. And, the queen heading that swarm is from essentially unknown heritage. To be certain of the future of that new colony, requeening as soon as possible should be considered.
Gathering a swarm can be the most exciting activity a beginner or seasoned veteran can experience. No two calls are ever alike, and no two swarms are the same.
Removing Bees From Supers in Order to Extract Honey
Probably the oldest and most direct technique to remove honey from bees was to bundle up as much as possible - probably at night - and just tear into the colony, in the process taking numerous stings. The development of smokers to subdue bees was a major advancement in honey removal. Using a lot of smoke, however, is not recommended as it can easily permeate the wax combs and contaminate the honey.
Aside from taking excessive numbers of stings, removing honey during cold weather periods is a simple way to take honey from bees. Practically all the bees will be in the cluster and not in the supers. Though bees don't care for the procedure, they can be brushed from combs with a soft bristle brush. This procedure is simple and cheap, but can result is a substantial number of bee stings. The old standard still applies. Take the honey when the fewest bees are at home.
Bee Traffic-Flow Control Devices to Remove Honey
Various types of bee valves (eg. the Porter Bee Escape) and escape boards are available that will allow bees to move from: supers but not return to them. The Porter bee escape fits in the inner cover (Bee Escape + Inner Cover = Escape Board). This model of escape board and others that work on the same principle, is put beneath honey supers. Cool nights are a great help in the successful use of escape boards because bees move back to the brood nest area leaving the supers. Advantages are: (1) bee escapes and escape boards are inexpensive, and (2) they are simple. Disadvantages are: (1) without cool nights, bees may be slow to move down, (2) robber bees may enter cracks and take honey, (3) supers are handled twice (once to put on the escape devices and a second time to remove them), and (4) a second trip to the yard may be required.
Blowing and Chemicals to Remove Honey
High volume-low pressure air devices can be used (eg a shop vacuum, leaf blower) or can be purchased commercially to remove bees from supers. They are fast but often expensive. However, easily obtained leaf blowers are changing that. The downside of these devices is that they do put a lot of bees in the air, and cause considerable confusion in the bee yard during harvest. Bee yards located near high human populations can get out of control. Chemicals can also purchased and used by soaking false covers that have a cloth interior. These so-called "fume pads" remove bees quickly, but the downside is the strong odor that permeates everywhere when they are in use.
